What is fly ash?

Fly ash is the finest of coal ash particles. It is called fly ash because it is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Fly ash is the fine powder formed from the mineral matter in coal, consisting of the noncombustible matter in coal and a small amount of carbon that remains from incomplete combustion. Fly ash is generally light tan in color and consists mostly of silt-sized and clay-sized glassy spheres. Properties of fly ash vary significantly with coal composition and plant operating conditions. In the United States, approximately 50 million tons of fly ash is reused annually.

Fly ash is referred to as either cementations or pozzolanic. A cementation material hardens when mixed with water. A pozzolanic material will also harden with water but only after activation with an alkaline substance such as lime. These cementations and pozzolanic properties make some fly ashes useful for cement replacement in concrete and many other building applications. Fly ash is used in concrete and cement products, road base, oil stabilizer, clean

fill, filler in asphalt, metal recovery, and mineral filler.

Where does fly ash come from?

Fly ash is produced by coal-fired electric and steam generating plants. Typically, coal is pulverized and blown with air into the boiler’s combustion chamber where it immediately ignites, generating heat and producing a molten mineral residue. Boiler tubes extract heat from the boiler, cooling the flue gas and causing the molten mineral residue to harden and form ash. Coarse ash particles, referred to as bottom ash or slag, fall to the bottom of the combustion chamber, while the lighter fine ash particles, termed fly ash, remain suspended in the flue gas. Prior to exhausting the flue gas, fly ash is removed by particulate emission control devices, such as electrostatic precipitators or filter fabric baghouses.

Where is fly ash used?

Fly ash is used as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) in the production of portland cement concrete. A supplementary cementitious material, when used in conjunction with portland cement, contributes to the properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity, or both. As such, SCM’s include both pozzolans and hydraulic materials. A pozzolan is defined as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material that in itself possesses little or no cementitious value, but that will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds having cementitious properties. Pozzolans that are commonly used in concrete include fly ash, silica fume and a variety of natural

pozzolans such as calcined clay and shale, and volcanic ash. SCM’s that are hydraulic in behaviour include ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly ashes with high calcium contents (such fly ashes display both pozzolanic and hydraulic behaviour).

What makes fly ash useful?

Fly ash can be a cost-effective substitute for Portland cement in many markets. Fly ash is also recognized as an environmentally friendly material because it is a byproduct and has low embodied energy, the measure of how much energy is consumed in producing and shipping a building material. By contrast, Portland cement has a very high embodied energy because its production requires a great deal of heat. Fly ash requires less water than Portland cement and is easier to use in cold weather. Other benefits include:

• Produces various set times
• Cold weather resistance
• High strength gains, depending on the use
• Can be used as an admixture
• Considered a non-shrink material
• Produces dense concrete with a smooth surface and sharp detail
• Great workability
• Reduces crack problems, permeability, and bleeding
• Reduces heat of hydration
• Allows for a lower water-cement ratio for similar slumps when compared to no-fly-ash mixes
• Reduces CO2 emissions

How fly ash is produced?

Fly ash is produced from the combustion of coal in electric utility or industrial boilers. There are four basic types of coal-fired boilers: pulverized coal (PC), stoker-fired or travelling grate, cyclone, and fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) boilers. The PC boiler is the most widely used, especially for large electric generating units.

The other boilers are more common at industrial or cogeneration facilities. Fly ashes produced by FBC boilers are not considered in this document. Fly ash

is captured from the flue gases using electrostatic precipitators (ESP) or in filter fabric collectors, commonly referred to as baghouses. The physical and chemical characteristics of fly ash vary among combustion methods, coal source, and particle shape.

Quality of fly ash

Quality requirements for fly ash vary depending on the intended use. Fly ash quality is affected by fuel characteristics (coal), co-firing of fuels (bituminous and sub-bituminous coals), and various aspects of the combustion and flue gas cleaning/collection processes. The four most relevant characteristics of fly ash for use in concrete are loss on ignition (LOI), fineness, chemical composition and uniformity.

LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon (coal) remaining in the ash and is a critical characteristic of fly ash, especially for concrete applications. High carbon levels, the type of carbon (i.e., activated), the interaction of soluble ions in fly ash, and the variability of carbon content can result in significant air-entrainment problems in fresh concrete and can adversely affect the durability of concrete. AASHTO and ASTM specify limits for LOI. However, some state

transportation departments will specify a lower level for LOI. Carbon can also be removed from fly ash.

Some fly ash uses are not affected by the LOI. Filler in asphalt, flowable fill, and structural fills can accept fly ash with elevated carbon contents.

The fineness of fly ash is most closely related to the operating condition of the coal crushers and the grindability of the coal itself. For fly ash use in concrete applications, fineness is defined as the percent by weight of the material retained on the 0.044 mm (No. 325) sieve. A coarser gradation can result in less reactive ash and could contain higher carbon contents. Limits on fineness are addressed by ASTM and state transportation department specifications. Fly ash can be processed by screening or air classification to improve its fineness and reactivity.

Some non-concrete applications, such as structural fills are not affected by fly ash fineness. However, other applications such as asphalt filler, are greatly

dependent on the fly ash fineness and its particle size distribution.

The chemical composition of fly ash relates directly to the mineral chemistry of the parent coal and any additional fuels or additives used in the combustion or post-combustion processes. The pollution control technology that is used can also affect the chemical composition of the fly ash. Electric generating stations burn large volumes of coal from multiple sources. Coals may be blended to maximize generation efficiency or to improve the station’s environmental performance. The chemistry of the fly ash is constantly tested and evaluated for specific use applications.

Some stations selectively burn specific coals or modify their additives formulation to avoid degrading the ash quality or to impart a desired fly ash chemistry and characteristics.

Uniformity of fly ash characteristics from shipment to shipment is imperative in order to supply a consistent product. Fly ash chemistry and characteristics are typically known in advance so concrete mixes are designed and tested for performance.